A glossary of terms used in articles on Hoyles Fitness
Aerobic
The term Aerobic means with oxygen. Aerobic exercise is any exercise which increases the breathing and heart rate, also called Cardio Vascular or CV work. To be aerobic, the heart rate needs to be sustained over an extended period of time.
Regular aerobic work is needed to sustain a healthy heart, decrease blood pressure, and boost your immune system. To reap these benefits, you should aim to perform a minimum of 20 minutes of aerobic exercise 2-3 times per week. Common aerobic exercises are jogging, cycling, and rowing.
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Anaerobic
The term Anaerobic means without oxygen. Anaerobic exercise is of a high intensity which can only be sustained for short periods. This type of exercise cannot be sustained for long periods as oxygen is not used, and lactic acid build up in the muscles causes a burning sensation.
Anaerobic exercise is used to increase muscle function, be it to improve sprinting speed or increase muscle size and strength.
Anaerobic work should be added to your routine for complete fitness. The most common ways to incorporate anaerobic exercise into your routine is by performing a Strength Training routine 2-3 times per week. Anaerobic exercise can also be mixed with Aerobic exercise by performing High Intensity Interval Training.
Common anaerobic exercises are sprinting, heavy weight lifting, and speed cycling/rowing.
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Amino Acids
Amino acids are the primary building blocks of enzymes and proteins. There are 20 main amino acids, eleven of which can be manufactured by the body, with nine being essential, i.e. that nine cannot be made by the body so have to be supplied by food.
You can get a full compliment of the essential amino acids by eating a varied diet that includes lean meats and dairy products, or if you’re vegetarian/vegan, nuts, seeds, soy products and beans/lentils.
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Antioxidants
As a by-product of everyday function, the cells in our bodies create damaged molecules known as free radicals. Antioxidants work to prevent damage caused by the free radicals by bringing them to the surface of the cell and providing components which stabilise the free radicals where they can do no harm to cellular components.
Common antioxidants are found in vitamins A, C, and E, and also in carotenoids (A pigment which adds colour to fruits and vegetables.) To be sure you’re getting plenty of antioxidants in your diet, eat a varied range of fruits and vegetables daily.
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Adenosine Di-Phosphate (ADP)
Adenosine Di-Phosphate is the product of ATP (Adenosine Tri-Phosphate) break down. When one of the bonds that attaches the phosphates to the adenosine molecule breaks, it releases energy. The by-product of this energy is an adenosine molecule with only two (di) phosphates attached.
The body recycles ATP by combining ADP with phosphocreatine, ensuring we have an enduring energy supply.
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Adenosine Tri-Phosphate (ATP)
Adenosine Tri-Phosphate is a molecule responsible for energy transfer at a cellular level. Adenosine Tri-Phosphate is an adenosine molecule, with three phosphate molecules attached. When the bond between an adenosine molecule and a phosphate breaks, energy is released.
The break down of ATP produces energy used in respiration and metabolism. Without ATP, there would be no energy production, which would shut down all body functions. Muscles would not contract, the brain would not function, digestion would not occur, cells would not repair and regenerate. In short, without ATP we would cease to exist.
The body can resynthesise ATP using the ATP-PC system (initially), the Lactic Acid system (secondly) and the Aerobic System (thirdly).
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Artery
The arteries are blood vessels responsible for carrying oxygenated blood around the body. The blood is passed through the lungs, where a process called gaseous exchange infuses oxygen into the blood. The arteries then carry this blood around the body, supplying the tissues with oxygen required for respiration.
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Atrium
Atrium refers to a space. In human anatomy, the most common use for the word atrium is in the heart. Our hearts consist of 4 chambers, two of which are known as atriums. The other two chambers are known as ventricles.
The right atrium receives de-oxygenated blood, which it passes to the right ventricle. This blood is then sent to the lungs, where it is infused with oxygen and is delivered back to the heart via the left atrium. It passes from here onto the left ventricle, where it is forcefully ejected to pass around the body.
Simply put, the atria are the smaller of the heart chambers.
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Basal Metabolic Rate (BMR)
Every day, just to keep you alive, your body has to perform hundreds of different actions. Absolutely everything your body does requires energy in the form of Calories. Then on top of this, your normal daily activities require more energy. The amount of calories your body burns in a day is referred to as your Basal Metabolic Rate, or BMR.
There are many ways to find you BMR, some using complex equipment, and others a series of calculations. By finding your BMR, you can then control your weight by adding or subtracting the amount of calories you eat daily from this starting point.
For example, to lose weight, you could eat 200-500 calories less than your BMR, and to gain weight, eat 200-500 calories more.
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Bioavailability
Bioavailability gauges the extent to which an administered substance reaches its site of action or utilization in the body. Bioavailability is thus a measure of the efficiency of delivery - how much of what is ingested is actually used for its intended purpose.
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BodyBuilding
To some level, anyone who is partaking in exercise to improve their physical shape and condition is a bodybuilder. Bodybuilding by its very nature is exercising and dieting to improve yourself aesthetically.
Bodybuilding as a sport is an extreme level of training and dieting. Bodybuilders are judged on musculature (relative muscle mass), symmetry of their physique, posing and definition (low body fat and water levels). The aim is to show off their bodies to a panel of judges to be awarded points. The bodybuilder who scores the most points overall from the aforementioned categories is the winner.
Over the last 40 years bodybuilding has grown and bodybuilders can earn huge sums of money through good results in competitions, sponsorship and appearance fees.
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Body Fat Percent
Your whole bodyweight is made up of many different organs and tissues. To improve our body shape, we try to increase our Lean Body Weight and decrease our body fat. We can measure the changes in our body by calculating what percentage of our bodyweight is body fat and what percentage is lean body weight. The common way of expressing this is by recording our weight, and body fat percent.
You can measure your body fat percent in several ways with varying degrees of accuracy and simplicity. The most common is by using Skinfold Calipers, or Body Fat Scales.
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Body Fat Scales
Measuring your body fat percent can be as easy as standing on a scale. Body Fat Scales work by sending a mild electrical current up one leg, and then down the other, and measuring the resistance encountered by the current along the way. The current will move freely through the fluids in the muscle tissue, but will have more difficulty travelling through fat.
The advantage of this method is simplicity. It doesn’t get easier than standing on a set of scales! The main disadvantage is the reports of inaccuracies using this method. One of the speculated reasons is the reliance on hydration levels. Using an electrical current means that the reading can vary based on how much you’ve had to drink prior to stepping on the scales. The other main complaint is that it only estimates the percentage based on the lower half of your body, and as fat distribution varies, people who are ‘top heavy’ may not be getting the best reading.
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Bio-Electrical Impedance (BIE)
Bioelectrical Impedance is a technique using electrical resistance to determine percentages of fat mass and fat free mass. Electrodes pass a painless current through the body; all the while the impedance is being measured, providing the tester with a body density reading, which is converted into a body fat estimation.
BIE has recently become a more widespread method of assessing body fat, thanks to the inclusion of the technology in many household weighing scales. The advantages of this method are the ease of use and the non-invasive nature of the technology. The major disadvantages of the technique are the sensitivity of the human body, and how easily food and fluid intake and storage can affect the results.
Body fat assessment using BIE is most accurate first thing in the morning, before you have had anything to eat or drink.
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Body Mass Index (BMI)
The Body Mass Index is a simple formula which divides your Body Weight in kilograms by your height in metres squared, and is used mainly by physicians to determine obesity. The result is then compared to a scale with 18.5 or less being underweight, all the way up to 40 which is considered very obese.
The test is not so applicable to athletes, or those with greater than average muscle mass, as it only takes into account height and weight. For example, according to the BMI test, Arnie ‘The Governator’ Shwarzenegger when competing in bodybuilding competitions, despite having less body fat than a whippet on hunger strike would be considered obese.
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Body Weight
Body weight is how much your entire body weighs. This measurement does not take into account your fat mass or fat free mass, so does not give us a true representation of physical condition. How much a person weighs is not always an accurate representative of their physical condition. In many cases gymnasts, rowers, rugby players etc are very heavy, but incredibly athletic.
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Blood Pressure
Blood Pressure is the pressure of the blood against the artery walls. We measure blood pressure using a Sphygmomanometer (try saying that after a drink). A blood pressure reading delivers two numbers, known as the Systolic and Diastolic readings.
Systolic is the blood pressure as the heart beats- this is higher as the blood is forced through the arteries at a high speed, in order to push it to the extremities.
Diastolic is the pressure of the blood between beats, as the heart rests. This is also known as the constant internal pressure.
A perfect blood pressure reading is 120/80.
Bulking
Bulking is a term used when trying to gain muscle. It refers to a progressive weight training programme combined with a calorie excess. If done properly, the trainee will develop a significant amount of muscle tissue and gain only a little extra body fat.
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Calorie
A calorie is a unit of energy. The simple term ‘calorie’ is the amount of energy that is needed to heat 1 gram of water by 1 degree centigrade.
A calorie is not to be confused with a Kilocalorie (Kcal), which is marked on food packets and nutritional information documents. A kilocalorie is 1000small calories, and is the energy required to heat 1 kilogram of water by 1 degree centigrade.
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Capilliarisation
Increased capilliarisation is typically a response to cardiovascular training. The term capilliarisation means an increase in the number of capillaries, which is very useful for a number of reasons. Capillaries are the smallest of all blood vessels and carry nutrients and oxygen to their target areas, where they are utilized by the body. The more capillaries we have, the greater surface area we have to allow the exchange of gases, nutrients and removal of waste products
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Carbohydrate
Carbohydrates are one of the macronutrients our body needs. We derive most of our energy from carbohydrates, so the bulk of our diet should consist of foods from this group. There are two different types of carbohydrate- simple and complex. Simple carbohydrates are so-called as they break down easily during digestion so release energy quickly. Complex carbohydrates take longer to break down, so release their energy over a longer period of time.
Carbohydrates consist of sugar molecules, which are broken down to the simple sugar (glucose) the body uses for energy. One gram of carbohydrate contains 4 kilocalories of energy.
Carbohydrates are found in foodstuffs such as bread, rice, pasta, potatoes and cereals.
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Cardio Vascular (CV)
Cardio Vascular refers to the heart, lungs and blood vessel system in the body. The cardiovascular system is responsible for the transport of blood and its contents around the body. The cardiovascular system is a complex network of tissues and its effective function is essential for sustaining life.
Without proper care (regular exercise and good diet) we are susceptible to cardiovascular diseases such as High Blood Pressure, Angina, Cardiac Arrest (heart attack), Endocarditis and Atherosclerosis.
When in the gym people refer to ‘cardio’ they mean cardiovascular endurance exercise, such as running, rowing, cycling etc which is designed to improve the function and efficiency of the cardiovascular system.
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Cellulite
The term cellulite (pronounced cell-you-leet) is a non-scientific term describing the lumpy areas of fat storage, mostly found on the hips and thighs of women, but can also be a male complaint.
Despite speculation that cellulite may be pockets of water, or residual toxins, etc. cellulite is actually Body Fat, plain and simple. The reason it’s stored giving that dimpled effect is due to three main culprits: Elasticity of connective tissue, over-fatness, and lack of muscle in the offending areas.
Combating cellulite requires a plan designed for overall Fat Loss. For best results, combine this with exercise to build muscle in the effected area.
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Circuit Training
Circuit training is a type of training whereby the trainee performs pre-determined exercises for a set amount of time. Each exercise is known as a ‘station’. Circuit training is a very popular class in health clubs all over the world and is an excellent whole-body conditioning method. A class usually consists of exercises for different body parts and short bursts of intense cardio work.
Each station usually lasts for 1 minute, after which the trainee moves on to the next exercise in the circuit.
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Compound Exercise
Compound exercises are resistance exercises that work large areas of muscle on the body. Sometimes referred to as a ‘multi-joint exercise’, compound movements should feature heavily in an effective resistance training program.
Common examples of compound exercises are Squats, Deadlifts and Bench Presses.
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Concentric
Concentric refers to a state of muscular contraction. Concentric contraction is when a muscle shortens during the lifting of a load. The classic example of concentric contraction can be seen in the biceps muscle group during a bicep curl- you can actually see and feel the muscle shorten in length as the exercise is performed.
The concentric phase of a lift is also known as the ‘positive’ phase.
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Cool-Down
A cool down is a period of gentle activity post-exercise that actively reduces the body to a normal resting state. A thorough cool down is important as it allows and encourages the removal of waste products that are produced as a by-product of exercise, such as lactic acid.
Some studies credit this short period of low-intensity exercise with reducing recovery time and injury risk.
An example of a cool down is a gentle cardiovascular activity such as jogging, reducing in speed and intensity to a gradual walk.
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Creatine
Creatine is a naturally occurring substance that is primarily involved in the reformation of ATP and ADP, which essentially is the energy supply of muscles and nerves. Without Creatine ATP and ADP (discussed earlier) would exhaust themselves within seconds, leaving no energy for muscle contraction.
Intense hype and misleading statements surround Creatine and its use as a supplement. It is the most heavily researched supplement available, and although evidence suggests there is benefit to its use, it is not necessary to achieve your fitness or physique goals. Don’t believe all of the marketing claims!
Intense training and careful diet are the only tools you need!
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Cutting
Cutting is the process of reducing body fat. When a trainee is ‘on a cut’, they are progressively reducing their body fat by monitoring their food intake and training as hard as possible. The two factors combined ensure loss of body fat, whilst maintaining as much muscle as possible.
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Dehydration
The human body is about two-thirds (approximately 70%) water. This water is present in all of our body tissues (even our teeth are 5% water), and it is vital this water level is maintained.
Dehydration occurs when the normal water content of your body is reduced. This change upsets the vital balance of chemical substances in your body, most notably sodium and potassium. In order to function properly, many of the body’s cells depend on these substances being maintained at the correct levels. It is common for endurance athletes to suffer cramp in the latter stages of their events due to dehydration reducing their sodium levels.
Such is the body’s dependency on water, a drop of just a few percent in total body hydration can cause very severe effects. In some extreme cases, the effects of dehydration can be fatal.
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Diuretic
A diuretic is a substance that encourages fluid excretion via urination. Diuretics are sometimes used (often unwisely0 by athletes trying to reduce their weight or hydration levels before a particular event. There are different types of diuretic, each working in a different way. Ultimately however, they all achieve the same goal.
DOMS
Delayed Onset Muscle Soreness is the pain in the muscles felt in the hours/days after exercise. There are various theories regarding the cause of DOMS, but the most widely accepted current theory is that when we exercise, small micro tears in the muscle tissue occur. Scar tissue forms over these tears during the healing process, and when we use the muscle again we stretch this scar tissue, causing slight pain.
This is only a theory. The truth is, we don’t know for sure what DOMS actually is, or what causes it. We do know however it is not caused by lactic acid build up, nor is it an indication of how hard a muscle has worked. DOMS is often noted after a change in exercise type, for example after a change in exercise program or after trying a new sport or activity.
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Eccentric
Eccentric is a state of muscular contraction. Where concentric contraction is the shortening of a muscle under tension, eccentric contraction is the lengthening of a muscle under tension. Again, using the biceps curl as an example, as the weight is being slowly lowered to the starting position it is under eccentric contraction.
The eccentric phase of a lift is also known as the ‘negative’ phase.
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Ectomorph
Ectomorph is one of the three somatotypes described by Dr Sheldon in the 1930’ and 1940’s. Ectomorphs tend to be long and lean. Low body fat, long, slender, limbs and in some cases, a small torso. Peter Crouch is a classic example of an Ectomorph.
A person does not have to adhere exactly to the ‘typical’ shape of their somatotypes- we can share characteristics of all three somatotypes, but our more dominant characteristics give us our body type.
Endomorph
Endomorph is one of the three somatotypes described by Dr Sheldon in the 1930’ and 1940’s.Endomorphs tend to be very muscular and strong, with higher body fat than the other two somatotypes. In many cases, endomorphs can be quite short, but very strongly built. Wayne Rooney is a good example of an endomorph.
A person does not have to adhere exactly to the ‘typical’ shape of their somatotypes- we can share characteristics of all three somatotypes, but our more dominant characteristics give us our body type.
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Failure
A shortened or informal term for Momentary Muscular Failure.
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Fat
Here we are referring to fat in our diet, not Body Fat. Dietary fat comes in four different varieties: Saturated, Polyunsaturated, Monounsaturated, and Hydrogenated. For practical use, these four can be narrowed down some more into good fats and bad fats.
Saturated and hydrogenated fats are known to clog your coronary arteries making it difficult for blood to get through freely causing all types of heart problems. Unfortunately for us, these are the fats that are easy to come by. Fortunately, they’re also easy to spot.
Hydrogenated fats are liquid oils that have been chemically treated to make them semi-solid, like margarine, and saturated fats are animal fats that come from meat and dairy products.
The good fats on the other hand can actually reduce blood cholesterol levels and protect against heart disease. These can be found in most oils, e.g. Vegetable oil, nut oil, etc.
Fats also contain the fat soluble vitamins A, D, E, and K
One gram of fat contains 9 Kcal of energy.
Fat Loss
Fat loss is the gradual reduction body fat, usually achieved through progressive exercise and sensible dietary choices.
There are many different methods of fat loss, but the most efficient are a combination of progressive weight training and carefully controlled nutrition. By consuming slightly less calories than your body needs, the energy shortfall is made up from your reserves, which is the body fat. Over time, the more of this reserve we use up, the lower the fat stores deplete and the leaner you become.
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Flexibility
Flexibility can be broken down into two main areas- muscle and joint flexibility.
Muscle flexibility is the ability of a muscle to stretch beyond its normal limits. By having flexible muscles we are much less likely to suffer from muscular strains and tears, which are serious injuries.
Joint flexibility is the range of movement a person has around their joints. Different joints have vastly differing ranges of motion. The shoulder for example is a very flexible joint, whereas the spinal joints are much less so.
Flexibility can be affected by injury and treatments, but can also be improved by stretching and specific exercises.
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Free Radicals
Free radicals are any atom or molecule that has an unpaired electron in its outer shell. As we were taught in GCSE chemistry, an atom or molecule likes to have a full compliment of electrons. If an electron leaves, the atom or molecule becomes reactive and has the ability to cause damage unless it bonds with an atom or molecule with the required number of electrons to make it stable. Free Radicals have been blamed for the effects of ageing and some degenerative diseases.
The body produces some enzymes to limit the damage free radicals, but they can only do so much. We need to supply antioxidants which are chemical compounds that limit Free radical damage. Fruit and vegetables are excellent sources of antioxidants.
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Free Weights
Free weights are another tool in the resistance trainers arsenal. Free weights differ from resistance machines in the sense that they are more versatile and do not rely on a fixed range of movement. They are also more adjustable and allow for changes in technique and execution of various exercises.
Free weights come in the form of Dumbells, Kettle bells and various Barbells. Variable resistance is applied in the form of removable weight plates of differing weights.
Gaseous Exchange
Gaseous exchange is the process whereby inhaled oxygen is infused into the bloodstream and waste carbon dioxide is removed from the blood in order to allow its excretion.
The actual process occurs in the alveoli in the lungs- tiny air sacs with minute blood vessels running by. The membrane of these blood vessels is very thin, and at the correct pressure oxygen can cross over the membrane and into the bloodstream, whilst the carbon dioxide is sent the other way. Although the actual alveoli are very small, they have a large surface area and there are many of them. Estimates suggest that if the surface area of the alveoli in an adult human lung were laid flat, they would cover an area the size of a tennis court!
Giant Set
When you perform four or more exercises back to back as a Super Set, this is sometimes referred to as a Giant Set.
See also: Tri-Set
Glycemic Index (GI)
The glycemic index is a ranking system for carbohydrates, based on their effect on blood glucose levels. In a ‘simple’ carbohydrate, energy is derived very quickly during digestion, as the carbohydrate is broken down very quickly. These types of foods (white bread, sweets, chocolate etc) have the highest GI scores. The ‘complex’ carbohydrates such as brown rice, oats, bran etc are broken down much more slowly during digestion, so release their energy over a longer period of time. The complex carbohydrates have lower GI scores.
Nutritionists recommend a diet high in low GI carbohydrates in order to keep insulin responses low and blood sugar levels constant.
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German Volume Training (GVT)
German Volume training was popularised from the 1960’s following exaggerated claims of huge muscle growth. The method essentially involves performing up to 10 sets per exercise over a three or four day split routine. Like many training regimes, pseudo science and aggressive marketing led to the training method becoming popular amongst certain populations.
Fans of the method claim it has helped them pack on huge amounts of muscle in a relatively short period of time, whereas critics don’t believe these claims and argue the method takes too long and is dangerous due to stresses placed on the nervous system.
Heart
The heart is a muscular pump that is responsible for sending the blood around the body.
The heart is a complex organ, with 4 chambers each responsible for a different job. The right side pumps blood into the lungs to be oxygenated (infused with oxygen). The left side pumps the oxygenated blood out to the organs and tissues of the body, supplying them with vital gases, nutrients, hormones etc.
In a nutshell, the heart works as follows…
Right side: First the oxygen-depleted blood enters the heart through two large veins, the inferior and superior vena cava and flows into the right atrium. From the right atrium, it passes through the tricuspid valve into the right ventricle. The blood is then pumped through the pulmonary valve and into the lungs.
Once in the lungs, gaseous exchange takes place (carbon dioxide is removed and oxygen is added). The blood is then returned via the pulmonary vein to the left side of the heart.
Left side: The pulmonary vein empties oxygen-rich blood, from the lungs, into the left atrium. From here, the blood flows from your into your left ventricle through the open mitral valve and finally it is pumped through the aortic valve into the aorta - the blood vessel that feeds all of the other parts of your body.
The cycle repeats almost without fail through your entire life.
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Heavy Duty Training (HD)
Heavy Duty is very similar to High Intensity Training (also known as ‘HIT’). HIT is based around performing very intense, brief and infrequent workouts. The goal is progressive overload: to add weight to the bar at every workout. Every set is taken to total failure.
A former professional bodybuilder named Mike Mentzer coined the term ‘Heavy Duty Training’. Essentially though, HDT and HIT are different names for the same thing.
High Intensity Training (HIT)
High Intensity Training was a radical shift from the fashionable volume training of the 60’s and 70’s. Arthur Jones believes in limited sets, training to muscular failure and working the body as a single unit, rather than the split routines that were preferred at the time.
HIT works on the theory that if the muscles are pushed to complete failure they are more likely to grow in order to meet the demands placed upon it for next time. The infrequent workouts allow for full recovery between sessions.
The method has undoubted credentials and has been used for many years as it is very successful. The only problem with the method is that the almost brutal intensity required in order to be successful is not always suitable for people with past medical problems.
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High Volume Training (HVT)
High Volume Training is a weight training method that requires the trainee to perform multiple sets per body part. A typical HVT session will train a particular muscle group with anywhere between 10 and 30 sets per session.
The theory is that by training so much you are constantly stimulating muscle growth. Critics of the method argue that the body was not designed to be trained as individual units on certain days, e.g. Chest one day, legs another etc. This method requires the trainee to spend long periods of time in the gym. It does not allow for full recovery of body parts either.
The debate between HIT and HVT continues to rage to this day.
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High Intensity Interval Training (HIIT)
High Intensity Interval Training is the same as Interval training, just at a higher intensity leve (oddly enough). The work periods are longer and harder, and the rest periods are shorter. The result is an even bigger oxygen debt created, meaning that even in the rest periods the body is still working hard to remove lactate from the body.
HIIT is so intense that sessions usually only last around 15 minutes. Any longer would be almost impossible to maintain at a high enough intensity level. Anyone thinking of trying HIIT would have to have already trained using Interval training to have anywhere near the required cardiovascular capability to make the method worthwhile.
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Homeostasis
Homeostasis is the maintenance of a constant internal environment, and is the reason your body experiences changes such as increased heart rate, shortness of breath and sweating during exercise. Homeostasis is a constant procedure for the body- balancing blood chemicals, body temperature, gas levels and millions of other tiny jobs we don’t even know about yet. Without homeostasis, important functions such body temperature and chemical composition would be under less control than a prison riot.
Hydration
Hydration is the intake of water and electrolytes via various fluids. The human body consists of approximately 70% water, and even a slight drop in our hydration levels leads to a detrimental effect in physiological function and performance. Depending on your physical size, you should aim to drink between 2 and 6 litres of water per day.
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Insulin
Insulin is a hormone that is primarily responsible for carbohydrate metabolism. It is produced in the pancreas, and is secreted into the bloodstream to deal with homeostatic control of blood glucose. Insulin shuttles the nutrients to the target cells, so is responsible for ensuring we actually receive the nutritional benefit from our foods. Insulin is also the hormone responsible for fat storage, so is ideally kept under control with suitable food choices.
Sufferers of Type 1 Diabetes Mellitus usually have to inject insulin as they don not produce their own. Patients with Type 2 Diabetes Mellitus have decreased insulin sensitivity, often (but not always) down to poor nutritional choices and little exercise.
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Interval Training
Interval training is a popular method cardiovascular of training. The technique involves interspersing slow paced work with higher-intensity sprints. Interval training is a very demanding but rewarding training method. The extreme intensity is credited with improving cardiovascular output and improving lactate threshold.
Due to the intensity of the work, it is not a method that is recommended for beginners. A stamina base should be established before undertaking a serious interval training programme.
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Isolation Exercise
When weight training, there are two main types of exercise, Isolation Exercise, or Compound Exercise. Isolation exercises, also known as Single Joint Exercises get their name by isolating one muscle group by providing movement around a single joint, for example, a Bicep Curl, which is performed by bending at the elbow while keeping the rest of the body still
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Isometric
Isometric refers to a type of muscular contraction. During an isometric contraction, the muscle visibly stays the same length, yet contracts in order to provide a resistance against an object or force.
A good example of Isometric contraction is during the plank. The muscles are contracted nad are working to keep the body in the correct position, but have not changed shape.
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Kcal
Short for Kilocalorie, a Kcal is 1000 Calories. However, an actual calorie is so small a unit, when referring to calories, what we actual mean is kilocalorie. For example, when someone says there’s 90 calories in a slice of bread, they actually mean kilocalories.
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Ketosis
Ketosis is the process during which the body derives energy from fat. Ketosis is not a state the body actually prefers to be in- we derive most of our energy from glucose (simple sugar), which is provided by the carbohydrate element of your diet.
The low-carbohydrate diet fads actually promote Ketosis. By not supplying the body with an adequate supply of carbohydrate, energy has to be taken from fat reserves. Over long periods of time this can be dangerous, as the blood acidity level rises and this in turn is known to cause Liver and Kidney damage.
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Kilocalorie
The scientific name for Kcals
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Lactic Acid (Lactate)
Lactic acid is constantly produced by the body as a by-product of metabolism and exercise. Lactate only becomes a problem during intense exercise, when its production outstrips its removal from the system. Oxygen is responsible for the removal of lactate, but when it cannot do this quickly enough we reach a point known as anaerobic threshold, or OBLA (Onset of Blood Lactate Accumulation). This point is where the muscles start to burn and become painful.
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Lactic Acid System
The lactic acid system is a form of respiration. The system is capable of releasing energy to resynthesise ATP without the involvement of oxygen and is called anaerobic glycolysis. This type of respiration kicks in after the ATP-PC system has expired, but before the body has a chance to move into aerobic respiration.
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Lean Body Mass (LBM)
Lean body mass is the weight of your body, minus your fat tissue.
The LBM takes into account all of your other tissues- your hair, teeth, skin, muscles, bones, organs, water etc, just not fat mass. We calculate Lean body mass manually by finding out fat mass (converting body fat percentage into a weight) and then subtracting it from the total body mass.
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Macronutrients
Macronutrients are the three major food groups we must eat in order to ensure a healthy diet. The macronutrients are Carbohydrates, Fats and Protein. All of the macronutrients have to be eaten in balance as they all have a specific role in the body. By under-consuming one of the macronutrients we are putting ourselves at risk from health problems. Although there are guideline amounts for how much of each macronutrient we should consume, they are open to slight interpretation in populations with certain dietary requirements.
Carbohydrates are found in food such as bread, cereals, pasta and potatoes.
Protein is found in all meat, fish and other animal products. Vegetarians and Vegans can consume protein from nuts, beans and pulses.
Fats can be found in animal products, fish, vegetable and nut oils and dairy products.
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Mesomorph
Mesomorph is one of the three somatotypes described by Dr Sheldon in the 1930’ and 1940’s. Mesomorphs tend to be ‘Triangular’ shaped. Capable of packing on muscle relatively easily, they tend to have broad shoulders, a small waist, be fairly lean and usually have strong bones. Brad Pitt is a good example of a Mesomorph.
A person does not have to adhere exactly to the ‘typical’ shape of their somatotypes- we can share characteristics of all three somatotypes, but our more dominant characteristics give us our body type.
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Metabolic Rate
Metabolic rate is the rate at which your body burns calories during your day to day life. Whereas BMR is at a state of total rest, metabolic rate takes into account daily life, and the calories expended during the day. Metabolic rate is affected by many factors such as age, sex, activity levels, muscle mass, disease and weight.
Athletes can often have a huge metabolic rate, despite being relatively small in stature, due to their intense training and competition schedule. Many athletes consume around 7000 calories per day- almost three times the amount a normal male would consume.
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Minerals
Minerals are essential nutrients that the body requires. Minerals are required in tiny amounts to ensure the body works effectively. We ingest the minerals as we need them- in the form they are found in food. The mineral content of food varies enormously, with the higher vitamin and mineral contents being found in natural foods such as fruit, vegetables and unprocessed meats. The refining and processing of foods strips them of much of their natural goodness.
Essential minerals are substances such as calcium, iron, magnesium, phosphorus, potassium and sodium.
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Micronutrients
Micronutrients are nutrients needed for life in very small quantities. They include chemical elements and chemical compunds such as minerals and vitamins. The micronutrients are organic chemicals that the human body requires in tiny quantities for optimum health and performance, but which we are unable to synthesise ourselves. We have to ingest them from dietary sources, which further highlights the need for a diet containing a wide variety of fruits, vegetales, proteins and carbohydrates.
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Momentary Muscular Failure/Fatigue (MMF)
When we are performing a Weight Training exercise, the point that we can no longer lift the weight, no matter how much effort we put forth, is referred to as Momentary Muscular Failure (MMF).
Carrying an exercise to MMF is one way to ensure you have overloaded a muscle, and sent signals to your body that it now needs to grow bigger and stronger to cope with the new stress.
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Multiple Joint Exercise
Multiple joint exercises are commonly known as compound exercises, discussed earlier in this article.
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Muscle Memory,
The term ‘muscle’ memory is misleading. Muscle tissue itself doesn’t have a memory. The concept of muscle memory refers to the ability of the brain to store and recall the motor neurone patterns required to activate the muscles used in complex physical movements, even after a long period away from the activity.
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Negative
Negative refers to the lowering of a weight, when the weight is being returned to the starting position. Using a bicep curl as an example, the negative phase of the lift is when the weight is being returned from its highest ‘curled’ position down to the starting position.
The negative phase is often when eccentric muscle contraction occurs.
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One Repetition Max (1RM)
One repetition max is the heaviest weight a person can lift in one particular exercise. A high one-rep max is the goal of a competitive lifter, where the contest is judged purely on the ability to lift a weight in relation to body weight.
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Overload
The overload principle in training states that the body will adapt to the stresses placed upon it. The more you do, the more you are capable of doing. This is how all the training adaptations occur in exercise and training. When you stress the body through lifting a weight that the body is unaccustomed to lifting, the body will implement physiological changes that will allow it to complete the work. This concept is applies to cardiovascular training. If you stimulate the cardiovascular system to do work not previously done, it will make changes to the body to be able to handle that task better the next time. This is how people get stronger, bigger, faster and increase their physical fitness level.
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Periodization
Periodization is the name given to a long term training plan designed to achieve peak fitness in time for an event or competitive season. It is the development of the capability to perform certain tasks or to develop certain physiological capabilities over a given period, by using specific training techniques.
A classic example of Periodization training can be seen in Football and Rugby pre-season training. The fitness coaches have to improve the speed, stamina, acceleration, agility and flexibility of the players in time for the season start, so will structure a training program in order to achieve this in the time scale.
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Positive
Positive refers to the ‘lifting’ stage of an exercise, from the starting position to the mid-point of the exercise. A good example is when doing a bench press, lifting the weight from the chest upwards. In many cases, the positive phase of a lift is when concentric muscle contraction occurs.
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Progression
Progression can refer to a gradual improvement in fitness or physique. Depending on who you ask, you will get a different response. A bodybuilder trying to reduce body fat would refer to progression in term of how his fat loss is coming along, whereas a sprinter would judge his progression on how fast he is running.
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Progressive Overload
Progressive overload refers to regular increases is exercise intensity to ensure steady improvement in fitness and physique. Weight trainers increase their weights and add more reps, whilst trainees following a cardiovascular training plan would tend to increase their speed or distances.
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Protein
At a cellular level protein is the macronutrient responsible for building and repairing the body. Without an adequate protein supply, wounds wouldn’t heal, hair and nails wouldn’t grow and muscles would shrink. Put simply, protein is vital for sustaining life.
Proteins are also known as amino acids- this confuses the matter. There are 20 amino acids- these are tiny molecules that when are structured in certain orders form different proteins. There are both essential and non-essential amino acids. The human body cannot produce essential amino acids; therefore it is ESSENTIAL that they are ingested from food sources. The non-essential amino acids can be fabricated by the body. When a protein contains all of the essential amino acids, it is said to have a complete amino acid profile.
One gram of protein contains 4 Kcal of energy.
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Resistance Training
Resistance training is a form of training that forces the muscles to work against a pre-determined resistance in order to achieve a desired response. Resistance can be supplied in the form of body weight, gravity or specialized equipment.
Resistance training is not purely used to achieve muscle growth- rehabilitation often uses resistance work to improve strength, and many athletes use specific resistance exercises to improve their performance. Muscular endurance can also be improved using resistance training.
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Respiration
Respiration is the process from which we derive energy from the foods we eat.
There are two types of respiration, Aerobic (with oxygen) and Anaerobic (without oxygen). Each type is used during a different intensity of activity. Anaerobic respiration is initially used by the body. It is sufficient to meet our energy demands over a short period of time, but produces lots of waste lactic acid. It could not provide enough energy for long duration exercise, and the build up of waste products would prevent long intensity being maintained for very long, hence intense exercise being short in duration.
The aerobic respiration involves the oxidation of glucose to provide energy. This type of respiration usually kicks in after about 5 minutes of continuous low-intensity exercise, and is sustainable for much longer periods than anaerobic respiration.
Respiration is often over-simplified and linked too closely with breathing, leading to confusion.
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Rep
A rep, or repetition, is a full lifting and returning of a weight during an exercise. Most exercises consist of a positive and negative phase and a rep is a movement of a weight or resistance between these.
A full rep is when a resistance is lifted through the whole range of movement of an exercise. Using the bench press as an example, a full rep is where the bar is lifted from the chest all the way until the arms are straight (but not locked) and back down to the chest. The resistance should be controlled the whole duration of the lift, not allowing gravity or momentum to help.
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Rep Cadence
Rep cadence refers to how fast a trainee performs each rep. Generally speaking; a slow rep cadence is better as the muscles are under tension for longer which in turn encourages development of new muscle tissue.
Slow rep cadence also helps to remove jerky movements from your lifts, which are one of the major causes of weight training injury.
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Skinfold Calipers
Skinfold calipers are a device used by practitioners to estimate body fat.
They work by measuring the thickness of a double compressed layer of skin (a pinch) and entering the readings into various equations and charts, to provide an accurate assessment of body fat. Given their ease and speed of use, skinfold calipers are a very popular tool for body fat assessment.
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Set
A set is a group of repetitions. How many sets of an exercise you perform is dependent on many factors, with most trainees completing anywhere between 1 and 4 sets. Some exercise programs suggest you should perform up to 10 sets, but lots of research has proved this amount is not actually necessary to simulate muscle growth (hypertrophy).
Generally speaking, most exercise programmes suggest three sets of an exercise to be performed.
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Single Joint Exercise
See: Isolation Exerciseback to top
Somatotype
Somatotypes are the three basic body shapes, charted by Dr William Sheldon in the 1930’s and 1940’s. The three Somatotypes are
Ectomorph- These tend to be long and lean. Low body fat, long, slender, limbs and in some cases, a small torso. Peter Crouch is a classic example of an Ectomorph.
Mesomorph- These tend to be ‘Triangular’ shaped. Capable of packing on muscle relatively easily, they tend to have broad shoulders, a small waist, be fairly lean and usually have strong bones. Brad Pitt is a good example of a Mesomorph.
Endomorph- These tend to be very muscular and strong, with higher body fat than the other two somatotypes. In many cases, endomorphs can be quite short, but very strongly built. Wayne Rooney is a good example of an endomorph.
Although there are three main somatotypes, they are flexible and most people are a mixture of each. It is uncommon for a person to be one single somatotype, so for example an endomorph can be tall and have the ability to reduce body fat to low levels. Similarly, an Ectomorph may have the ability to grow large amounts of muscle or have broad shoulders.
Somatotypes are calculated using a chart system. Each of the three categories is enlisted with a rating between 1 and 7. The somatotype with the highest rating is your dominant type, but we can be a mixture.
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Spotter
A spotter is a person who ensures safety during weight training, by helping with picking up weights and ensuring help is at hand should the trainee reach muscular failure and cannot complete a repetition. Upon failure, the spotter prevents injury by helping the trainee return their weights to a safe position.
A good spotter is both a safety measure and a motivational tool. By training with a spotter you are free to increase your weights safely, which is of benefit to both your fitness and physique.
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Stabilizer Muscles
Stabilizing muscles are tiny muscles that surround the joints. Joints with a large range of movement such as the shoulders and hips tend to have more stabilizers than other, less mobile joints such as the fingers and spinal joints. The stabilizing muscles are there to offer support and stability (oddly enough) to the joints during movement, especially under load and during twists and turns.
An injury to a stabilizing muscle is important to treat with extra care to prevent future injury.
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Static Contraction Training (SCT)
Static Contraction Training is a training principle vastly different from traditional weight training. Whereas during traditional weight training we lift a weight through a full range of movement, in static contraction training the lifter holds a very heavy weight (between 30 and 100% heavier than their usual weight) at a point of maximal contraction and maintains the position for a short period of time, usually no longer than 10 seconds.
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Steroid
Anabolic steroids are linked to the male hormone testosterone. They are chemically-produced and are used are used both medicinally and as a bodybuilding supplement. Anabolic steroids work by increasing protein synthesis in cells, which leads to anabolism (growth), especially in muscle cells.
Although the effects of steroid use may be appealing to many of the weight training public, they are fraught with dangers and side effects, many of which are irreversible. Non medical use of steroids is not advisable, even with guidance.
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Strength
’Strength’ is the source of much debate in Sports Science circles, as it is not easy to define. Rather than simply being an ability to move a load from one position to another, strength can be measured and defined in many ways. A person may have a great strength to weight ratio, but not be able to lift a heavy load, for example.
As a very general term, strength can be defined as ‘the ability of the neuromuscular system to produce force’.
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Super Hydration
Super Hydration is a process of keeping the body well hydrated throughout the day by drinking large quantities of ice-cold water, developed in most recent years by Dr Ellington Darden. It is credited with helping to burn extra calories, as the body needs to warm this water up, which in turn uses energy.
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Super Set
To perform a super set, pick two or more Weight Training exercises, then as soon as you finish your set of the first exercise, move as quickly as possible to the next exercise. You should start the next exercise within 5 seconds of finishing the last one.
Traditionally, super sets are performed with opposing muscle groups. For example, you might superset a Bicep exercise with a Tricep exercise, but more recently has been used to describe any two or more exercises performed back to back.
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Super Slow
Super slow refers to rep cadence. When a person refers to super-slow, they generally mean a rep cadence in excess of 5 seconds concentric, 5 seconds eccentric contraction time.
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Supplements
Supplements are products designed to help people achieve their fitness and physique goals quicker, by supplementing diets with extra macro and micronutrients.
Supplements come in may different varieties and brands with widely differing claims. The most common supplements are mass-builders (high-calorie shakes), Creatine (a naturally-occurring chemical said to improve strength, endurance, muscle building and recovery) and various protein shakes (a dietary protein supplement said to improve muscle building opportunity).
Unfortunately the effectiveness of the vast majority of supplements are unproven, suggesting marketing claims are little more than hype.
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Target Heart Rate (THR)
Target heart rate varies depending on the activity a person is training for. Generally speaking, training we aim to operate within the following different zones:
The Aerobic Zone - 70% to 80% of maximum heart rate. Training in this zone will develop your cardiovascular system.
The Anaerobic Zone - 80% to 90% of maximum heart rate. Training in this zone will develop your lactic acid system.
The Red Line Zone - 90% to 100% of maximum heart rate. Training in this zone will only be possible for short periods. It effectively trains your fast twitch muscle fibres and helps to develop speed.
Time Under Load (TUL)
Time under load is how long the muscles are under load when lifting a weight. By timing how long the muscles are under load, we can gain a much more accurate picture of how much work the muscles have performed, rather than by just counting reps, which may differ in speed.
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Time Under Tension (TUT)
Time under tension is the same concept as time under load. Rather than counting reps, the trainer or trainee times the amount of time the muscles are producing force through being under tension.
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Tri-Set
When you perform three exercises back to back as a Super Set, this is sometimes referred to as a Tri-Set.
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Vitamins
Vitamins are organic chemical compounds required in tiny amounts to facilitate metabolic and chemical reactions in living organisms. Without vitamins, normal cellular function would cease to exist, causing the subsequent breakdown on many biological systems and processes.
Vitamins are one of the micronutrients discussed previously in this article.
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Veins
The veins are the blood vessels that are responsible for carrying the de-oxygenated blood back to the heart.
This blood is then pumped back to the lungs to be re-stocked with oxygen. Veins tend to be smaller than the arteries as they are not as muscular and the blood they contain is smaller in volume as it is carrying less oxygen.
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Ventricle
The ventricles are the larger chambers of the heart. They have a thick muscular wall as they are designed to pump blood out of the heart.
The right ventricle pumps the blood to the lungs to be filled with oxygen. Once the blood returns to the heart it is passed via the left atrium into the left ventricle, where it is pumped out to the rest of the body. The left ventricle has a thicker muscular wall than the right ventricle, as it pumps the blood around the body- a much longer distance.
Vo2 Max
Vo2 max is the ability of the body to transport and utilize oxygen during exercise. Generally speaking, the higher a person’s vo2 max, the better their cardiovascular fitness is going to be. Sometimes, Vo2 max is referred to as aerobic capacity.
Usually Vo2 max is expressed as millilitres of oxygen per kilogram of bodyweight per minute (ml/kg/min). This is how we present numbers for comparison. Typically, and adult male will have a Vo2 max of around 45 ml/kg/min, whereas a male endurance athlete would more likely be above 70 ml/kg/min.
Vo2 max can be improved using various cardiovascular training methods, such as interval training, steady state, and HIIT.
Warm-Up
A warm up is a short period of exercise (usually cardiovascular in nature) that is performed before exercise. It is designed to gently prepare the muscles, joints, nerves and cardiovascular system for the more strenuous activity that awaits them. Warm-ups are usually tailored to the activity about to be performed, for example a gymnast would warm up differently to a rower.
Studies show that an effective warm-up can improve performance and reduce injury risks significantly.
Water Intake
Water intake is the amount of non-diuretic fluid we take in during the day. Water intake has to be monitored in order to make sure we take in the right amount. During periods of intense sweating, we need more water to replace fluids lost.
It is possible to over-hydrate though. In long distance endurance events, some athletes have been known to over-hydrate, without replacing electrolytes. This leads to an over-filling of cells and a dilution in minerals, most notably sodium. This condition is known as hyponatremia and can be very dangerous.
Weight Machines
Weights machines are resistance-exercise stations with a fixed action. Most weights machines have one or two uses, but there are others that have a variety of attachments and handles that allow the user to perform a multiple exercises.
As with any piece of equipment, there are pros and cons. Some argue a forced range of movement does not allow proper training of small stabilizing muscles in the joints. Others argue weights machines are safer than free weights and allow the user to control the weight better, providing more resistance.
Examples of weight machines include the pec deck, the seated row and the leg press.
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Weight Training
Weight training simply refers to training with weights. These can include Free Weights, Weight Machines at your gym, or even just your Body Weight in exercises such as Push-ups.
There are many different ways you can train with weights, including High Intensity Training, Super Slow, High Volume Training, and German Volume Training
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Whey Protein
Whey protein is protein that is isolated from whey, a by-product of cheese manufactured from cow’s milk. Whey protein typically comes in three major forms: concentrate, isolate and hydrolysate.
Concentrates contain a low level of fat and cholesterol but generally have higher levels of bioactive compounds, and carbohydrates in the form of lactose they are 29%-89% protein by weight.
Isolates are processed to remove the fat, and lactose, yet are usually lower in bioactive compounds as well they are 90%+ protein by weight.
Hydrolysates are predigested, partially hydrolyzed whey proteins which consequently are more easily absorbed, but their cost is generally higher.
Whey protein has the highest bioavailability of any protein known to man. It is commonly used immediately post workout.
Whey protein is the best-selling protein supplement in the world.
